Alex Stewart is Dean of the Faculty and Professor of New Testament Studies at Gateway Seminary.
The short account of the final defeat of Satan in Rev 20:7–10 raises many difficult interpretive questions.[1] First, how does this battle relate to earlier visions of battle and warfare? Are they the same battle or does John envision multiple final battles?[2] This is perhaps the key question in the pre-millennial verses amillennial debate.[3] Second and related, how does the reference to Gog and Magog, set in apposition to the nations in Rev. 20:8, relate to the eschatological antagonists described in these other battle visions in Revelation (the beast, the second beast/false prophet, the ten kings, the kings of the earth)? Finally, how does John’s use of Ezekiel 38–39 and other prophetic oracles throughout Revelation inform our understanding of the hermeneutical practices employed by John in the use of prior Scriptural traditions? This article will explore these questions in reverse order, starting with hermeneutical observations on John’s use of prior texts and traditions.
Hermeneutical Observations
This section will consider two case studies in order to make three hermeneutical observations. First, clusters of allusions to a specific pre-text increases the probability of John’s conscious engagement with that text.[4] Second, John combines and synthesizes various OT texts with similar themes.[5] Third, John freely applies details from particular pre-texts across his various visions in similar patterns. This would suggest that either he viewed a particular prophetic oracle as being fulfilled in multiple different future events or, more likely, his various visions all describe the single future fulfillment of the prophetic oracle. The comparison of John’s use of Joel 2:28–3:21 (3:1–4:21 LXX) and Ezekiel 38–39 below will demonstrate that John synthesizes the general plot from both of these prophets and applies the material from both in similar ways in his own visions. The general guidelines for identifying intertextual echoes proposed by Hays (availability, volume, recurrence, thematic coherence, historical plausibility, history of interpretation, and satisfaction) are utilized by many interpreters and are generally helpful; they guide assessments of probability but cannot be determinative or final.[6]
Joel 3:3–4:21 LXX
Revelation contains repeated allusions to the oracles regarding the judgment of the nations leading to the restoration of Jerusalem in Joel 2:28–3:21 (3:1–4:21 LXX).[7]
| Cosmic Darkness Rev. 6:12–13 “and the sun (ὁ ἥλιος) became black as sackcloth, the full moon (ἡ σελήνη) became like blood (αἷμα) and the stars (οἱ ἀστέρες) of the sky fell to the earth” Rev. 6:17 “for the great day of their wrath has come (ἦλθεν ἡ ἡμέρα ἡ μεγάλη)” Rev. 8:12 “and a third of the sun (ἡλίου) was struck, and a third of the moon (σελήνης), and a third of the stars (ἀστέρων), so that a third of their light might be darkened (σκοτισθῇ)” Cf. Rev. 9:2 “and the sun (ὁ ἥλιος) and the air were darkened (ἐσκοτώθη) with the smoke from the shaft” Cf. Rev. 16:10 “and its kingdom was plunged into darkness (ἐσκοτωμένη)” | Cosmic Darkness Joel 2:31 (3:4 LXX) “The sun (ὁ ἥλιος) shall be turned to darkness (σκότος), and the moon (ἡ σελήνη) to blood (αἷμα), before the great (μεγάλην) and awesome day of the Lord comes (ἐλθεῖν ἡμέραν)” Joel 3:15 (4:15 LXX) “The sun and the moon are darkened (ὁ ἥλιος καὶ ἡ σελήνη συσκοτάσουσιν), and the stars (οἱ ἀστέρες) withdraw their shining” Cf. Joel 3:14 (4:14 LXX) “the day (ἡμέρα) of the Lord is near” |
| Gathering of the Nations for Judgment Rev. 16:14 “to assemble (συναγαγεῖν) them for battle”[8] Rev. 16:16 “And they assembled (συνήγαγεν) them at the place that in Hebrew is called Armageddon” Rev. 19:19 “And I saw the beast and the kings of the earth with their armies gathered (συνηγμένα) to make war” Rev. 20:8 “and will come out to deceive the nations (τὰ ἔθνη) that are at the four corners of the earth, Gog and Magog, to gather (συναγαγεῖν) them for battle” | Gathering of the Nations for Judgment Joel 3:2 (4:2 LXX) “I will gather (συνάξω) all the nations (τὰ ἔθνη) and . . . enter into judgment with them there” |
| Judgment Imagery of Sickles, Vintage, Winepress, and Trampling Rev. 14:15 “Put in your sickle (Πέμψον τὸ δρέπανόν), and reap” Rev. 14:18–20 “‘Put in your sickle (Πέμψον σου τὸ δρέπανον) and gather (τρύγησον) the clusters from the vine of the earth, for its grapes are ripe.’ So the angel swung his sickle (δρέπανον) across the earth and gathered (ἐτρύγησεν) the grape harvest of the earth and threw it into the great winepress (ληνὸν) of the wrath of God. And the winepress was trodden (ἐπατήθη ἡ ληνὸς) outside the city” Rev. 19:15 “He will tread the winepress (πατεῖ τὴν ληνὸν) of the fury of the wrath of God the Almighty” | Judgment Imagery of Sickles, Vintage, Winepress, and Trampling Joel 4:13 “Put in the sickle (ἐξαποστείλατε δρέπανα), for the harvest (τρύγητος) is ripe. Go in, tread (πατεῖτε), for the winepress (ἡ ληνός) is full. The vats overflow, for their evil is great”[9] |
| Shaking of Heaven and Earth Rev. 6:12 (cf. 11:13; 16:18) “there was a great earthquake (σεισμὸς)” Rev. 20:11 “Then I saw a great white throne and him who was seated on it. From his presence earth and sky (ἡ γῆ καὶ ὁ οὐρανὸς) fled away, and no place was found for them” | Shaking of Heaven and Earth Joel 3:16 (4:16 LXX) “and the heavens and the earth quake (καὶ σεισθήσεται ὁ οὐρανὸς καὶ ἡ γῆ)” |
| God Dwelling in Holy City Jerusalem Rev. 21:2 “And I saw the holy city, new Jerusalem (τὴν πόλιν τὴν ἁγίαν Ἰερουσαλὴμ)” Rev. 21:3 “Behold, the dwelling place of God is with man. He will dwell (σκηνώσει) with them” Rev. 21:10 “showed me the holy city Jerusalem (τὴν πόλιν τὴν ἁγίαν Ἰερουσαλὴμ)” Cf. Rev. 22:3–4 | God Dwelling in Holy City Jerusalem Joel 3:17 (4:17 LXX) “So you shall know that I am the LORD your God, who dwells (ὁ κατασκηνῶν) in Zion, my holy mountain. And Jerusalem shall be holy (ἔσται Ιερουσαλημ πόλις ἁγία), and strangers shall never again pass through it”[10] Joel 3:21 (4:21 LXX) “for the Lord dwells (κατασκηνώσει) in Zion” |
| Water from House of the Lord Rev. 7:17 “and he will guide them to springs (πηγὰς) of living water” Rev. 21:6 “To the thirsty I will give from the spring (πηγῆς) of the water of life without payment” Cf. Rev. 22:1 “Then the angel showed me the river of the water of life, bright as crystal, flowing from the throne of God and of the Lamb” | Water from House of the Lord Joel 3:18 (4:18 LXX) “and a fountain (πηγὴ) shall come forth from the house of the Lord” |
| The Shedding of Innocent Blood Rev. 16:6 “For they have shed (ἐξέχεαν) the blood (αἷμα) of saints and prophets” Rev. 17:6 “And I saw the woman, drunk with the blood (αἵματος) of the saints, the blood (αἵματος) of the martyrs of Jesus” Rev. 18:24 “And in her was found the blood (αἷμα) of prophets and of saints, and of all who have been slain on earth” | The Shedding of Innocent Blood Joel 3:19 (4:19 LXX) “they have shed innocent blood (ἐξέχεαν αἷμα δίκαιον) in their land” |
| Divine Avenging of Innocent Blood Rev. 6:10 “how long before you will judge and avenge our blood (ἐκδικεῖς τὸ αἷμα ἡμῶν) on those who dwell on the earth?” Rev. 19:2 “and has avenged (ἐξεδίκησεν) on her the blood (τὸ αἷμα) of his servants” | Divine Avenging of Innocent Blood Joel 3:21 (4:21 LXX) “I will avenge their blood (ἐκδικήσω τὸ αἷμα αὐτῶν)”[11] |
John alludes to these oracles in Joel throughout his book. These allusions are present in striking clusters of words and ideas (the trampling of the winepress), references to general prophetic themes (diminishment of heavenly light, cosmic shaking, the pouring out and avenging of innocent blood, the gathering of the nations for judgment, God dwelling with his people in Jerusalem, water from God’s house), and the general narrative and thematic progression from the judgment of the nations to the restoration of Jerusalem. The book of Joel ends as does the final vision of Revelation with a vision of God dwelling in Zion (Joel 3:21 [4:21 LXX]: “for the Lord dwells in Zion” [κύριος κατασκηνώσει ἐν Σιων]). As in Revelation, Joel blends battle imagery with judicial action when describing God’s judgment of the nations (war/πόλεμος [Joel 3:9/4:9 LXX], gather/συνάγω [Joel 3:11/4:11 LXX], “I will sit to judge all the surrounding nations”/καθιῶ τοῦ διακρῖναι πάντα τὰ ἔθνη κυκλόθεν [Joel 3:12/4:12 LXX], justice/δίκη [Joel 3:14/4:14 LXX]).
In regard to judgment, allusions to these oracles in Joel can be discerned with various degrees of volume in the fifth seal, sixth seal, fourth trumpet, fifth trumpet, the harvest of the earth, the third bowl, the fifth bowl, the judgment of Babylon, the rider’s judgment, and the judgment of Gog and Magog. Allusions to restoration in Joel can be found in Revelation 7, 21, and 22.
This network of allusions in Revelation to Joel 3:3–4:21 LXX along with widespread prophetic themes could structurally suggest that the vision of judgment in Rev. 14:17–20 (the cluster of allusions with the loudest volume) is parallel to the day of the Lord in the sixth seal, the gathering of the nations in the sixth bowl judgment, the judgment of Babylon, the rider’s trampling of the vintage, and the gathering of the nations for battle after the millennium. John alludes in all of these visions to this single prophetic oracle in Joel.
Ezekiel 38–39
A careful analysis of the Gog and Magog oracles in Ezekiel 38-39 produces some similar observations. The following chart builds upon prior lists by Kowalski and Lust but is focused on Ezekiel 38–39 and is expanded in various ways.[12]
| A Great Earthquake Rev. 6:12 (cf. 8:5; 11:13; 16:18) “there was a great earthquake (σεισμὸς μέγας)” | A Great Earthquake Ezek. 38:19 “On that day there shall be a great earthquake (σεισμὸς μέγας) in the land of Israel” |
| Fire as Judgment Rev. 8:5 “Then the angel took the censer and filled it with fire (πυρὸς) from the altar and threw it on the earth, and there were peals of thunder, rumblings, flashes of lightning, and an earthquake” | Fire as Judgment Ezek. 38:22 “I will rain upon him . . . fire and sulfur (πῦρ καὶ θεῖον)” Ezek. 39:6 “I will send fire (πῦρ) on Magog” |
| Hail, Fire, and Blood as Judgment Rev. 8:7 “and there followed hail (χάλαζα) and fire (πῦρ), mixed with blood (αἵματι), and these were thrown upon the earth” | Hail, Fire, and Blood as Judgment Ezek. 38:22 “With pestilence and bloodshed (αἵματι) I will enter into judgment with him, and I will rain upon him and his hordes and the many peoples who are with him torrential rains and hailstones (χαλάζης), fire (πῦρ) and sulfur” |
| Fire and Sulfur as Judgment Rev. 9:17 “and fire (πῦρ) and smoke and sulfur (θεῖον) came out of their mouths”[13] (cf. fire and smoke and sulfur [πυρὸς καὶ τοῦ καπνοῦ καὶ τοῦ θείου, 9:18]; he will be tormented with fire and sulfur [πυρὶ καὶ θείῳ, 14:10]; These two were thrown alive into the lake of fire that burns with sulfur [πυρὸς τῆς καιομένης ἐν θείῳ, 19:20]; “the lake of fire and sulfur” [λίμνην τοῦ πυρὸς καὶ θείου, 20:10]; “in the lake that burns with fire and sulfur” [πυρὶ καὶ θείῳ, 21:8]) | Fire and Sulfur as Judgment Ezek. 38:22 “With pestilence and bloodshed I will enter into judgment with him, and I will rain upon him and his hordes and the many peoples who are with him torrential rains and hailstones, fire (πῦρ) and sulfur (θεῖον)” |
| Servant Prophets Rev. 10:7 “just as he announced to his servants the prophets (δούλους τοὺς προφήτας)” Cf. Rev. 11:18 “and for rewarding your servants, the prophets and saints (τοῖς δούλοις σου τοῖς προφήταις)”[14] | Servant Prophets Ezek. 38:17 “Are you he of whom I spoke in former days by my servants the prophets (τῶν δούλων μου προφητῶν) of Israel” |
| Prophesying against Rev. 10:11 “ You must again prophesy about (προφητεῦσαι ἐπὶ) many peoples and nations and languages and kings”[15] | Prophesying against Ezek. 38:2 “prophesy against (προφήτευσον ἐπʼ) him” Ezek. 39:1 “prophesy against (προφήτευσον ἐπὶ) Gog” |
| Earthquake and Giving Glory Rev. 11:13 “And at that hour there was a great earthquake (σεισμὸς μέγας) . . . and the rest were terrified and gave glory to the God (ἔδωκαν δόξαν τῷ θεῷ) of heaven” (cf. 6:12; 16:18) | Earthquake and Giving Glory Ezek. 38:19, 23 “On that day there shall be a great earthquake (σεισμὸς μέγας) in the land of Israel . . . So I will show my greatness and my holiness (the LXX here adds καὶ ἐνδοξασθήσομαι, words absent from the MT) and make myself known in the eyes of many nations. Then they will know that I am the Lord“ |
| Pouring Out of Wrath Rev. 16:1 “pour out (ἐκχέετε) on the earth the seven bowls of the wrath (τοῦ θυμοῦ) of God”[16] | Pouring Out of Wrath Ezek. 39:29 “when I pour out my Spirit (LXX has “wrath”: ἐξέχεα τὸν θυμόν) upon the house of Israel” |
| Gathering for War Rev. 16:14 “to assemble (συναγαγεῖν) them for battle”[17] Rev. 16:16 “And they assembled (συνήγαγεν) them at the place that in Hebrew is called Armageddon” Rev. 19:19 “gathered (συνηγμένα) to make war” Rev. 20:8 “to gather (συναγαγεῖν) them for battle” | Gathering for War Ezek. 38:4 (“And I will turn you about [καὶ συνάξω σε]”), 7 (“all your hosts that are assembled about you [οἱ συνηγμένοι μετὰ σοῦ]”), 13 (“Have you assembled your hosts [συνήγαγες συναγωγήν σου]”), 15 (“a great host [συναγωγὴ μεγάλη]”) |
| Divine Wrath and Judgment Rev. 16:18–21 Note the combination of “great earthquake” (σεισμὸς) . . . (μέγας), “the cities of the nations fell” (ἔπεσαν), “fury of his wrath” (θυμοῦ τῆς ὀργῆς), “mountains” (ὄρη), and “hail” (χάλαζα) in divine judgment.[18] | Divine Wrath and Judgment Ezek. 38:18–23 “wrath” (θυμός) . . . “anger” (τῆς ὀργῆς) . . . “great earthquake” (σεισμὸς μέγας) . . . “mountains” (ὄρη) . . . “every wall shall tumble (πεσεῖται) to the ground” . . . “hailstones” (χαλάζης) |
| A Feast for Birds Rev. 19:17–18 “Then I saw an angel standing in the sun, and with a loud voice he called to all the birds that fly (λέγων πᾶσιν τοῖς ὀρνέοις τοῖς πετομένοις) directly overhead, ‘Come, gather (συνάχθητε) for the great (μέγα) supper of God, to eat (φάγητε) the flesh of kings, the flesh of captains, the flesh of mighty men, the flesh of horses (ἵππων) and their riders, and the flesh of all men, both free and slave, both small and great”[19] | A Feast for Birds Ezek. 39:4 “I will give you to birds of prey (ὀρνέων) of every sort (παντὶ) and to the beasts of the field to be devoured” Ezek. 39:17–20 “As for you, son of man, thus says the Lord God: Speak to the birds of every sort (Εἰπὸν παντὶ ὀρνέῳ πετεινῷ) and to all beasts of the field: ‘Assemble (Συνάχθητε) and come, gather (συνάχθητε) from all around to the sacrificial feast that I am preparing for you, a great (μεγάλην) sacrificial feast on the mountains of Israel, and you shall eat (φάγεσθε) flesh and drink blood. You shall eat (φάγεσθε) the flesh of the mighty, and drink the blood of the princes of the earth—of rams, of lambs, and of he-goats, of bulls, all of them fat beasts of Bashan. And you shall eat (φάγεσθε) fat till you are filled, and drink blood till you are drunk, at the sacrificial feast that I am preparing for you. And you shall be filled at my table with horses (ἵππον) and charioteers, with mighty men and all kinds of warriors,’ declares the Lord God” |
| The Bird’s Feast Rev. 19:21 “And the rest were slain by the sword that came from the mouth of him who was sitting on the horse, and all (πάντα) the birds (ὄρνεα) were gorged with their flesh” | The Bird’s Feast Ezek. 39:4 “I will give you to birds of prey (ὀρνέων) of every sort (παντὶ) and to the beasts of the field to be devoured” (cf. 39:17). |
| Coming to life Rev. 20:4 “They came to life (καὶ ἔζησαν) and reigned with Christ for a thousand years” | Coming to life Ezek. 37:10 “and they lived (καὶ ἔζησαν) and stood on their feet” |
| Gog and Magog Rev. 20:8 “the nations (ἔθνη) that are at the four (τέσσαρσιν) corners of the earth (τέσσαρσιν γωνίαις τῆς γῆς),[20] Gog and Magog (τὸν Γὼγ καὶ Μαγώγ) to gather (συναγαγεῖν) them for battle” | Gog and Magog Ezek. 38:6, 8, 9, 12, 15, 16, 22, 23; 39:4, 7, 21, 23, 27, 28 “nations” (ἔθνη) Ezek. 7:2 “the four corners of the land (τέσσαρας πτέρυγας τῆς γῆς)” Ezek. 38:2 “Gog (Γωγ), of the land of Magog (Μαγωγ)” (cf. Ezek. 38:4, 7, 13, 15 regarding Gog’s host) Ezek. 38:4 (“And I will turn you about [καὶ συνάξω σε]”), 7 (“all your hosts that are assembled about you [οἱ συνηγμένοι μετὰ σοῦ]”), 13 (“Have you assembled your hosts [συνήγαγες συναγωγήν σου]”), 15 (“a great host [συναγωγὴ μεγάλη]”) |
| Destruction of Gog and Magog with Fire Rev. 20:9 “ And they marched up over (ἀνέβησαν ἐπὶ) the broad plain of the earth (γῆς) and surrounded the camp of the saints and the beloved city, but fire (πῦρ) came down from heaven and consumed them”[21] | Destruction of Gog and Magog with Fire Ezek. 38:9 “You will advance (ἀναβήσῃ), coming on like a storm” Ezek. 38:11 “I will go up against the land (Ἀναβήσομαι ἐπὶ γῆν)” Ezek. 38:16 “You will come up (ἀναβήσῃ) against my people Israel” Ezek. 38:22 “I will rain upon him . . . fire (πῦρ) and sulfur” Ezek. 39:6 “I will send fire (πῦρ) on Magog” |
These allusions are present in striking clusters of words and ideas (various combinations of hail, fire, blood, and sulfur, the feast for birds, reference to Gog and Magog and their gathering, ascent, and destruction by fire from heaven). There are also many allusions to general prophetic themes (a great earthquake, judgment by fire, prophets as God’s slaves, the pouring out of wrath, the gathering of the nations for a battle of judgment, and, considering Ezekiel 40–48, the restoration of Jerusalem, God dwelling with his people in Jerusalem, water from the temple to restore the land), and the general narrative and thematic progression from resurrection to the judgment of the nations to the restoration of Jerusalem that can be observed from Ezekiel 37–48.
Explicit allusions to Ezekiel’s Gog and Magog oracles can be discerned in the reference to Gog and Magog (Rev. 20:8–9), the sixth and seventh bowls (Rev. 16:14–21), and the feast of the birds after the coming of the rider (Rev. 19:17–18, 21). Allusions with lesser degrees of volume can be discerned in the sixth seal, seventh seal, first trumpet, sixth trumpet, the narrative of the two witnesses, and descriptions of the lake of fire and sulfur.
John’s use of the Gog and Magog oracles compared with his use of Joel 3:3–4:21 LXX, support the hermeneutical observations made earlier. First, clusters of allusions to a specific pre-text increases the probability of John’s conscious engagement with that text.[22] Second, John combines and synthesizes various OT texts with similar themes.[23] In this regard, John is following Ezekiel’s lead in the way that Ezekiel synthesized prior traditions regarding the foe from the north.[24] Third, John freely applies details from particular pre-texts across his various visions in similar patterns. John draws from both prophets (and others, of course, such as Isaiah 24–27[25]) in describing specific visions, particularly the fifth seal, sixth bowl, the coming of the Rider, and Gog and Magog. This would suggest that John synthesized oracles from various Hebrew prophets into the general timeline of the judgment of the nations leading to the restoration of Jerusalem. This synthesized prophetic eschatological timeline is used as a resource of words, ideas, and images in various visions following a similar trajectory of judgment leading to restoration.
John’s communication of the results of this synthesized reading of OT prophecies of the judgment of the nations and restoration of Jerusalem produces some consistent alterations. John downplays elements of the prophecies that are historically limiting (i.e. the reference to Tyre, Sidon, Philistia (Galilaia LXX), Egypt and Edom in Joel 4:4, 19) or ethnocentrically focused on ethnic Israelites (i.e. the exclusion of foreigners from Jerusalem in Joel 4:17). John also ignores Ezekiel’s concern with the burial of dead soldiers and the purity of the physical land (Ezek 39:11–16)[26] and goes beyond Ezekiel in shifting from particularism to universalism in regard to the ethnic constitution of the people of God.[27] John adds additional characters to Ezekiel’s vision such as the rider, the beasts, and the dragon.[28] This reflects a Christologically additive interpretation of the Gog and Magog oracles.
John’s use of the same Hebrew prophetic oracles to shape the events of multiple different visions suggests that John’s visions are largely repetitive and not chronologically progressive.[29] For example, John’s use of Joel and Ezekiel suggest that he likely expected one final battle and not four (Rev 16:12–21; 17:14; 19:11–21; 20:8–10).[30] This conclusion cannot be determined with certainty, but seems to be the implication of John’s diffused hermeneutical use of prior prophetic oracles about God’s judgment of the nations and restoration of Jerusalem.
If John’s use of the same prophetic sources and traditions to shape his various visionary narrative accounts of the single final battle is correct, we can make some observations of the identity and narrative function of Gog and Magog.
| References to the Final Battle | ||||
| Rev. 16:12–21 | Rev. 17:14 | Rev. 19:11–21 | Rev. 20:8–10 | |
| Supernatural Antagonists | The Dragon, Beast, and False Prophet (13) | The beast (12–13) | The Beast and False Prophet (19–20) | Satan, the Dragon (2, 7) |
| Deceived Human Antagonists | Kings form the east (13), from the whole inhabited earth (14) | Ten kings (12) | The kings of the earth and their armies (19) | Gog and Magog, the nations from the four corners of the earth (8) |
| Fate of Human Antagonists | Greatest earthquake ever (18), breaking up of the city (19), falling of the cities of the nations (19), removal of islands and mountains (20), great hail (21) | Defeated by the lamb (14) | Slain with Sword from the mouth of the one rider; corpses eaten by birds (21) | Consumed with fire from heaven (9) |
| Fate of Supernatural Antagonists | Not stated | Defeated by the lamb (14) | Thrown into lake of fire (20) | Thrown into lake of fire (10) |
Despite much popular speculation, Gog and Magog, rather mundanely, are parallel to the kings of the nations and their followers in the other accounts of the final battle. John references Gog and Magog, not to be mysterious or enigmatic, but as a way to explicitly claim that his vision of this final battle is the same as Ezekiel’s vision of Gog and Magog in Ezek 38–39.
Conclusion
The two case studies considered above (Joel 2:28–3:21/3:3–4:21 LXX and Ezekiel 38–39) demonstrate not just that John was heavily influenced by the Old Testament, but that particular prophetic oracles exerted disproportionate influence and were more central to John’s eschatological timeline than others. These oracles were synthesized by John and are alluded to by him in many different visions throughout Revelation, likely suggesting that Revelation’s visions, despite different details, involve significant repetition of the same basic plot points. The alternative but less likely conclusion is that John broke up these original prophetic oracles and parceled out their fulfilment in a convoluted and complicated series of different future events. The simpler conclusion seems to be that John synthesized the prior prophetic oracles into a single eschatological timeline which involved the judgment of the nations and restoration of Jerusalem, and that the visions in Revelation provide diverse snapshots of this timeline updated and expanded by his Christological convictions.
Read more from the inaugural issue by downloading the full pdf or accessing the articles below.
[1] The only major monograph on the topic of Gog and Magog in Revelation focused on Rev 19:17–21 and 20:7–10 is S. Bøe, Gog and Magog: Ezekiel 38–39 as Pre-Text for Revelation 19, 17–21 and 20, 7–10, WUNT 2.135 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2001). Other important studies include J. P. Ruiz, Ezekiel in the Apocalypse: The Transformation of Prophetic Language in Revelation 16,17–19,10, Europäische Hochschulschriften Series 23, Theologie 376 (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1989); Beate Kowalski, Die Rezeption des Propheten Ezechiel in der Offenbarung des Johannes, SBB 52 (Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 2004); Beate Kowalski, “Transformation of Ezekiel in John’s Revelation,” in Transforming Visions: Transformations of Text, Traditions, and Theology in Ezekiel, eds. W. A. Tooman and M. A. Lyons (Cambridge: James Clark, 2010), 279–311; J. Webb Mealy, After the Thousand Years: Resurrection and Judgment in Revelation 20, JSNTSup 70 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992); Wei Lo, “Ezekiel in Revelation: Literary and Hermeneutic Aspects” (Ph.D. Dissertation at the University of Edinburgh, 1999).
[2] In general, Craig R. Koester’s suggestion of a “forward-moving spiral” seems to capture the unique blend of visionary repetition and narrative progression: “Vision cycles both overlap and progress, with individual sections tracing the movement from conflict to victory that shapes the book as a whole” (Revelation, The Anchor Yale Bible 38A [New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014], 115). This recognition of general repetition does not definitively answer the particular question of the relationship of John’s various descriptions of and references to a final battle.
[3] This article will not engage with New Creation Millennialism although I intend to publish a response and likely endorsement of New Creation Millennialism in the near future. I need to weigh further how the conclusions of this article related to the position before articulating a response. New Creation Millennialism is an approach to the millennium that seeks to bridge the gap between pre-millennial and amillennial positions by integrating the strongest exegetical arguments from each approach. Key advocates include Mealy (After the Thousand Years) and now Eckhard Schnabel (“The Viability of Premillennialsim and the Text of Revelation 20,” JETS 64 [2021]: 785–795) and Thomas R. Schreiner (Revelation, BECNT [Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2023], 677–682).
[4] Bøe, Gog and Magog, 347, 349.
[5] J. Fekkes, Isaiah and the Prophetic Traditions in the Book of Revelation: Visionary Antecedents and Their Developments, JSNTSup 93 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994), 71–101. Fekkes develops this insight with reference to several themes.
[6] Richard B. Hays, Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 28–32. Michelle Fletcher has recently argued that John’s allusive use of the Old Testament can best be described as pastiche (Reading Revelation as Pastiche: Imitating the Past, LNTS 571 [London: T & T Clark, 2017]). “Pastiche is a specific practice of imitation and combination that sits somewhere between original and copy, parody and homage, and collage and mosaic” (p. 48). This designation seems appropriate to John’s diverse use of the Old Testament, but Fletcher’s resultant methodology is “fluid and flexible” (p. 63) and does not easily support historical inquiry. For Fletcher, pastiche leads to a reading strategy that does not seek to find a single determinative meaning or the author’s intention (p. 67, 71).
[7] There are also many allusions in Revelation to the first half of Joel, but the focus here will be on the oracles that begin with “And it shall come to pass afterward” (2:28/3:1 LXX, Καὶ ἔσται μετὰ ταῦτα). On the structure of Joel see Leslie C. Allen, The Books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, and Micah, NICOT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976), 39–43.
[8] Note below the use of συνάγω in Ezekiel 38–39. Even more than Joel or Ezekiel, the closest parallel with Revelation at this point is Zech. 14:2 (“I will gather all the nations against Jerusalem to battle” καὶ ἐπισυνάξω πάντα τὰ ἔθνη ἐπὶ Ιερουσαλημ εἰς πόλεμον).
[9] Joel 4:13 LXX describes God’s judgment of the nations as both harvesting with a sickle and treading the winepress. This could suggest both a grain and a grape harvest as parallel images of judgment since a δρέπανον would presumably go with grain and not grapes, but John also uses a δρέπανον in his description of the vintage which would suggest that he was following the LXX which translates קָצִיר (harvest) with τρύγητος (vintage). This could suggest that only a vintage is in view in Joel 4:13 LXX, and John read it as such.
[10] Joel visualizes the exclusion of foreigners from the holy city; this could be compared and contrasted with John’s exclusion of the unclean (Rev. 21:8, 27; 22:15) but inclusion of foreigners who meet the holiness criteria (Rev. 21:24).
[11] On divine vengeance for shed blood (ἐκδικήσω τὸ αἷμα) see also Hos. 1:4.
[12] Kowalski, “Transformation of Ezekiel,” 303–306; J. Lust, “The Order of the Final Events in Revelation and in Ezekiel,” in L’Apocalypse johannique et L’Apocalyptique dans le Nouveau Testament, ed. J. Lambrecht, BETL 53 (Leuven: University Press, 1980), 179–183, 180.
[13] Other notable combinations of fire with sulfur can be found in Gen. 19:24 (“Then the Lord rained on Sodom and Gomorrah sulfur and fire [θεῖον καὶ πῦρ] from the Lord out of heaven”) and Ps. 11:6 (“Let him rain coals on the wicked; fire and sulfur [πῦρ καὶ θεῖον] and a scorching wind shall be the portion of their cup”). Cf. πυρὶ καὶ θείῳ in 3 Macc. 2:5.
[14] The direct connection of δοῦλος and προφήτης can also be found in 4 Kingdoms 17:13, 23; 21:10; 24:2; Esdras B 9:11; Amos 3:7; Zech. 1:6; Jer. 7:25; 25:4. The most significant parallel to Revelation in this regard is found in 4 Kingdoms 9:7/2 Kings 9:7 which includes many words which are significant for John (ἐκδίκησις [see ἐκδικέω in Rev. 6:10; 19:2], αἷμα, δοῦλος, προφήτης, and Ιεζαβελ): “And you shall strike down the house of Ahab your master, so that I may avenge on Jezebel the blood of my servants the prophets, and the blood of all the servants of the Lord” (καὶ ἐξολεθρεύσεις τὸν οἶκον Αχααβ τοῦ κυρίου σου ἐκ προσώπου μου καὶ ἐκδικήσεις τὰ αἵματα τῶν δούλων μου τῶν προφητῶν καὶ τὰ αἵματα πάντων τῶν δούλων κυρίου ἐκ χειρὸς Ιεζαβελ).
[15] The use of ἐπί after προφητεύω is common in the Hebrew prophets and not distinctive to Ezekiel.
[16] On the pouring out of wrath (ἐκχέω and θυμός) also see: Ps. 68:25; Sir. 36:6; 39:28; Zeph. 3:8; Jer. 10:25; Lam. 2:4; 4:11; Ezek. 7:5; 9:8; 14:19; 20:8, 13, 21; 22:22, 31; 30:15; 36:18. Although the motif occurs elsewhere, there is a strong concentration of occurrences in Ezekiel.
[17] Although Rev. 16:14 shares the verb συνάγω with Ezekiel 38, the closer parallel is with Zech. 14:2 (“I will gather all the nations against Jerusalem to battle” [καὶ ἐπισυνάξω πάντα τὰ ἔθνη ἐπὶ Ιερουσαλημ εἰς πόλεμον]). It is important, however, to note that all five uses of συνάγω in Revelation occur in contexts filled with multiple other allusions to Ezekiel 38–39 (Rev. 16:14, 16; 19:17, 19; 20:8; cf. Bøe, Gog and Magog, 279–280).
[18] Ruiz argues, “The far more literally explicit use of Ezek 38 in Sib Or 3, 669–694; the reference to Rome in Tg. Neb. Ezek 39,16; the citation of Ezek 38, 17.22 in Pesiq. R. 17,8, and the use of the stereotyped expression, ‘resoundings and thunder and lightning’ in Jub 2,2 suggests that Rev 16, 17–21 participates in a tradition in which the Exodus plagues and the Sinai tradition were combined and projected into eschatological time. Rev 16,17–21 represents an original crystallization of this material, reappropriating the Exodus plagues, the Sinai theophany and its tradition, and the Gog of Magog oracles from Ezekiel” (Ezekiel in the Apocalypse, 264).
[19] In addition to the words in parentheses, synonymous expressions would include Δεῦτε for ἔρχεσθε, δεῖπνον for θυσίαν and τραπέζης, σάρκας for κρέα, βασιλέων for γιγάντων, χιλιάρχων for ἀρχόντων, τῶν καθημένων ἐπʼ αὐτῶν for ἀναβάτην. This volume of synonyms confirms the allusion, but suggests paraphrase from memory, translation directly from the Hebrew, or dependence on a different Greek translation.
[20] Cf. τὰς τέσσαρας γωνίας τῆς γῆς (Rev. 7:1).
[21] The expression “Then fire came down from heaven and consumed him and his fifty” (καὶ κατέβη πῦρ ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ καὶ κατέφαγεν αὐτὸν καὶ τοὺς πεντήκοντα αὐτοῦ) occurs in 2 Kings 1:10, 12 when fire comes down from heaven to consume two separate groups of a captain with fifty men who had been sent to capture Elijah. This more closely matches John’s language but the use of fire to destroy Gog in Ezek. 38:22; 39:6 is still relevant. Fire frequently occurs in contexts of judgment; the most important of which for Revelation probably include Gen. 19:24; 1 Kings 18:38; 4 Ezra 13:10–11, 37–38. Elsewhere in Revelation, fire destroys Babylon (Rev. 18:8–9), destroys the enemies of the two witnesses (Rev. 11:5), is produced by the second beast to deceive (Rev. 13:13), and occurs throughout the trumpet and bowl judgments.
[22] Bøe, Gog and Magog, 347.
[23] J. Fekkes, Isaiah and the Prophetic Traditions, 71–101. Fekkes develops this insight with reference to several themes.
[24] Lo, “Ezekiel in Revelation,” 96. Lo notes Ezekiel’s synthesizing of this tradition found in Isaiah 5:26-30; 10:4; 24:32; Hab. 1:5-11; Jer. 1:13-15; 4:5-8, 11-17, 19-21, 23-26, 29-31; 5:15-17; 6:1-5, 22-26; 8:16). Ezekiel introduces some differences. Pre-exilic usage of the foe-from-the-north traditions describe the near future while Ezekiel sets Gog’s assault in the distant future (Lo, 100). The Gog assault is on a much larger scale than the foe-from-the-north traditions and envisions “a battle between the entire world and the restored Israel” (Lo, 101). Finally, the foe-from-the-north traditions focused on the doom of the one being attacked, the Gog oracles focus on the doom of the invader (Lo, 103).
[25] Fekkes, Isaiah and the Prophetic Traditions, 226; Mealy, After the Thousand Years, 99–101, 133–135, 137–138, 142 (references from Bøe, Gog and Magog, 355).
[26] Bøe, Gog and Magog, 380.
[27] Bøe, Gog and Magog, 351. Bøe notes that in Revelation, “Gog’s attack is not directed against Israel, and it does not take place ‘on Israel’s mountains’, as in Ezekiel 38–39. The bird’s supper is not said to take place ‘on the mountains of Israel’, as in Ezek 39,17. Neither are the soldiers compared to ‘the fatlings of Bashan’, as in Ezek 39,18” (380). In addition, he notes universal elements of Revelation’s account. “Gog and Magog are said to come from ‘the four corners of the earth’ (20,8). Instead of ‘the mountains of Israel’ (Ezek 39,4) John speaks of ‘the breadth of the earth’ (Rev 20,9). The shift from singular to plural in the noun ‘peoples’ in Rev 21,3 (cf. Ezek 37,27) probably points to the multi national background of God’s redeemed people” (380).
[28] Lo notes, “Surely his adding the new element to the tradition, i.e., Christ, and his transformation of the foe into a Satanic force give the tradition a new look, but the way he reinterprets the Gog oracle is in fact paralleled to what the prophet has done to the foe-from-the-north tradition” (“Ezekiel in Revelation,” 119).
[29] Bøe cautions that “the double use of one pre-text or motif is by itself not decisive” (Gog and Magog, 376). He takes the double use of Ezekiel’s measuring of the temple in Rev 11:1–2 and 21:10–27 to indicate that the double use of a theme does not require that both accounts refer to the same action (378–279).
[30] This is the main conclusion of this study that would push against New Creation Millennialism and is an area of further research.