Introduction
Currently, Christians in Iran number between 200,000 to 300,000 to over 1 million, mostly from Muslim backgrounds. With the present war between Iran, a closer look at the history of Christianity in Iran may be helpful in placing these events in context. Though it has been sporadic, throughout Iran’s history with Christianity, there has been discrimination against and the persecution of Christians. The relationship between Iranian governments and Iranian Christians has vacillated between tension and comfort. Whenever outside forces arrived or a major threat occurred, a disruption followed in the arrangement between Iranian Christians and the ruling Iranian government. This paper presents a short accounting of the history of persecution and protection of Christians in Iran.
Beginnings of Christianity in Iran
Biblical Times
Eleven books in the OT directly reference the lands or peoples of greater Iran. Iran’s current Islamic government displays Bibles in museums that date back hundreds of years and promotes the idea that the tombs of well-known OT figures such as Daniel, Esther, and Mordecai are located within its borders, as are the tombs of Cyrus the Great, Darius the Great, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes. In many OT books, the peoples of Iran play a prominent and positive role in God’s plan for the nations, particularly Israel. Cyrus, for example, is used as a type of Christ and is called a “servant,” a term used for Davidic kings. Even more significant is the designation of Cyrus as the Lord’s “messiah” or “anointed one” in Isa 45:1. In certain ways, the policies of the Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC) molded post-exilic Judaism; the Achaemenids allowed the Jews to return to their homeland and enabled them to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem and to construct the second temple. Contrasted with other non-Jewish nations, the OT characterization of the Persians is affirming.
Some believe the Magi, the famed “Three Wise Men,” who followed the celebrated star to Christ’s home told about in Matt 2:1–11 were from Iran and possibly Zoroastrian priests. During Pentecost, Acts mentions Jews from the Parthians, Medes, and Elamites—all tribes in Iran—as those who were converted to Christianity when they heard Peter’s sermon (Acts 2:9). Church tradition indicates that a number of Christ’s first twelve apostles had contact with this area, including Matthew, Jude, Simon the Zealot, Bartholomew, and Thomas.
Parthian Empire (247 BC–224 AD)
Generally historians agree that there has been a constant, albeit complicated, Christian existence in Iran since the early days of the faith. Christians were in the area by the AD 100s. The metropolitan areas of Edessa (150 miles northeast of Antioch in Syria) and Arbela (N. Iraq) are where Christianity in Iran began, and Christianity eventually progressed to Nisibis (140 miles east of Edessa in northern Mesopotamia).
Christians fled the Roman Empire to Iranian controlled areas during times of oppression. By the early 200s, Christians became numerous enough for the state to be concerned with security. On the island of Kharg in the Persian Gulf, sixty Christian tombs were found where there are also the remains of a Christian church. At Bishapur, on the border of the empire, there are remains of a church with a baptistry. By the end of the Parthian Empire, there were twenty bishoprics in Parthian areas. The expansion of the church in Iran was considerable.
Outside Forces
Sassanid Empire (224-651)
During the Sassanid Empire in Iran, after Emperor Constantine legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire, Christianity became seen as the religion of Rome. During times of war between the Roman and Sassanid Empires, wholesale discrimination against Christians occurred with greater frequency. For Iran, fighting against Rome and oppressing Christians became part of the same battle. Thousands of Christians died in the first major persecution in Iran. The desire for a Christian leader influenced the actions of Christians in Iran toward the opposing regime. At least one author argues that Emperor Constantine, with tacit approval of the Persian bishop, was thinking about invading Persia, seeing himself as a “liberator” of Christians in Persia.
Later, Christians in Iran again were persecuted with close to 200,000 Persian Christians dying. However, Historian Richard Foltz maintains that by the end of the seventh century the Western part of Iran was largely Christian, and many of the Christians in this period were well educated and known as “transmitters of culture.” Another writer estimates there were over 100 bishoprics in the empire. Eighteen of the twenty-five provinces of the empire were evangelized or had some type of Christian witness. Indeed, the Sassanids were not supportive of Zoroastrianism (the majority religion at the time in Iran) completely. When the Sassanid Empire was strong, there was less need for Zoroastrian support. Persecution tended to increase when the empire was weak. The Sassanid rulers appeared to seek the Zoroastrians’ approval by harassing Christians.
Islamic Conquest (651-1256)
During the Muslim conquest of the region, Islam displayed varying degrees of tolerance towards Christianity. This tolerance required compromises on the part of Christians, usually in the form of acceptance of and allegiance to the Islamic government. The treatment of Iranian Christians under Muslims remained similar to how it had been under the Sassanids. Under the Islamic government, however, Christians in Iran declined in number, but Christianity also strengthened. There is kindheartedness exhibited towards Christianity in Iranian poetry; educational and cultural centres of Iranian Christianity grew; the graduates of some of these educational and medical schools taught Muslim leaders; and influential Christians were prominent in government. Leading Christians were sought-after administrators, translators, and physicians. Until the 10th century, the bulk of Iranian philosophers were Christian; until the 11th century, the majority of translators were Christian; and until the 13th century, almost every Iranian leader’s personal physician was a Christian. Furthermore, Christians in Iran commissioned missionaries and expanded their holdings into parts of Asia, including India, China, Tibet, and Sri Lanka. Outside the Bible, this was the first great missionary movement in Christian history.
The Mongol Invasion (1256-1500)
The beginnings of Mongol rule seemed encouraging for Iranian Christians because the new rulers promoted a policy of religious non-interference. As a result of the Church of the East’s missionary efforts, the Mongols were familiar with Christians in other parts of Asia. The Mongols lifted many of the restrictions placed on Iranian Christians and as had been the case with Iran’s former sovereigns, Iranian Christians could attain influential positions within the new government.
The Mongols’ attitude towards Christianity changed during the Crusades. Given that the majority of Iran’s population adhered to Islam, the Mongols began to reconsider their policy of religious tolerance. Around 1400, Mongal leader Timur murdered thousands of Christians, destroyed churches, monasteries, and schools. Outside of a few enclaves in the western part of the country in the Kurdistan region, Christianity in Iran was almost entirely eliminated.
The Safavids (AD 1501–1796)
Beginning in 1530, the Safavids started to transport Armenians to Iran. Not much is known about this deportation, but it began a period of transferences of Armenians to Iran that lasted about 100 years. There is more evidence regarding the second major deportation that started in 1603. This one was motivated by military and economics. Shah Abbas I was warring against the Ottomans and did not want to lose the Caucasus to them, so he attacked Armenia. The shah used a scorched earth policy and destroyed the area. He spared the Armenians and deported them to Iran. Many died during the transfer and the climate killed others. Armenians were placed in many areas all over the country.
From the 1603 deportation on, Armenians became the largest Christian sect in Iran. They established the first printing press in Iran, the first book printed being the OT book of Psalms.
The shah’s interest in protecting Armenians lay not in that he was a benevolent leader or that he had interest in converting to Christianity—the coming of the Safavid Empire established Twelver Shi’ism as Iran’s state religion, a period not the kindest to other faiths—the shah was interested in economic and political gain. However, in the late 1600s, the government’s position on Armenians changed. Many of their privileges were revoked and by the end of the century, there was little difference between the Armenians and other religious minorities. Nevertheless, their significance remained. Few converted to Islam; the Armenians became another reminder of the compatibility of Christianity in Iran.
The Missionary Period
Qajar and Pahlavi Empires (1796-1979)
Enlightenment thought played a meaningful role in the West’s understanding of knowledge during this period. One of the Enlightenment motifs was the certainty of progress. While Iran’s ethnic Christians, the Armenians and Assyrians, maintained a presence, this was a time when colonialism and manifest destiny were at their peak. Missionaries built schools and medical institutions, which helped develop the country. Literacy rates increased and healthcare advanced, but missionaries confused Westernization with the proclamation of the gospel: Western socio-economic progress was confused with the message of Jesus Christ.
Not surprisingly, there was general distrust towards foreigners during this time, especially with Russia and Britain partitioning Iran into spheres of influence. However, some missionaries were able to endear themselves to the Iranian people. Howard Baskerville, a Presbyterian missionary teacher in Tabriz during the Constitutional Revolution, fought with Iranians against royalist troops. He died leading a contingent of soldiers to battle, most of whom were his students. He was twenty-four years old. Even today, he is well remembered; in 2005, then president Mohammad Khatami unveiled a bust of him in Tabriz. Samuel Jordan, another Presbyterian missionary, considered by at least one as the father of modern day education in Iran, spent over 40 years educating thousands of Iranians. He founded American College of Tehran (Alborz College), a place where many Iranian academicians were trained.
Prior to World War II, the United States was not as involved in Iran’s affairs as other countries. In certain ways Americans were appealing to Iranians as Iranians considered them impartial outsiders, friends of the Iranians who did not mettle in internal affairs. Most American governmental involvement prior to this time came as a result of Presbyterian missionary requests. But, with the onset of the Cold War and a socialist movement beginning in Iran, the threat of communism drove American anxiety. As the newly and democratically elected Prime Minister Mohammed Mosaddeq appeared to have affinities with the communist party, the United States succumbed to British requests and overthrew his government, which solidified Mohammed Reza Shah’s domestic autonomy and the United States’ influence over Iran’s foreign affairs. Mohammed Reza Shah’s government allowed American (and Western) missionaries freedom to practice their faith more openly than previous rulers.
Evangelistic crusades, baptisms, and other overt Christian endeavors increased. Indeed, it was during the tenure of Mohammad Reza Shah that American missions in Iran reached a high point. Freedom came with a price. As long as the missionaries supported the Shah, they had liberty to operate. Compared with the Shah’s brutality towards his own people and the deep social pressures that arose with rapid modernization, Iranian resentment towards the Shah grew; this affected those connected with him, particularly Westerners, including Western missionaries. By the end of the Pahlavi’s rule there were less than 500 Iranian Christians in Iran who were once Muslims with a total of around 3,000 Bible believing Christians in Iran, including the ethnic Iranian Christians.
The Islamic Republic (1979-Present)
Although Christians were protected under Article 13 of Iran’s Constitution, persecution became normal practice against Iranian Christians. The message from Iran’s new government was clear from the beginning: “Quiet Christianity will be tolerated in the Islamic Republic; enthusiastic Christianity will be opposed.” While persecution stopped or severely limited the aboveground registered churches, it did the opposite with house churches. House churches in Iran are thriving, even in Iran’s holiest of Muslim cities. House churches usually comprise 10 to 15 people meeting in members’ homes or other private areas. Their small size means there is more accountability in house churches than in traditional ones. Testimonials are expected and there is collective ownership. House churches in Iran share a reliance on technology, a deference to their predecessors and the ethnic Christians in Iran (Armenians and Assyrians), and a connection with the global Church.
Analysis
Contemporary Iranian policies may be illuminated by examining the effects of outside forces on historical Iranian governments, and such governments’ reactions to those threats in terms of providing and withdrawing freedoms. The leaders of the Islamic Republic hope to promote the success of their country, and because the West, in general, and the United States, in particular, are considered Christian and have a history of meddling in Iran’s internal affairs, Iran’s current hostility to any deviation from the limitations placed upon Christians, while inappropriate, is comprehensible.
Given that thousands of ethnic Iranian Christians have left Iran during the period of the Islamic Republic – perhaps more Christian emigration than at any other time in Iran’s history – an investigation to determine whether there are any significant causes for this migration in addition to persecution would be welcomed. Since the current growth of Christianity in Iran and the persecution of Christians is similar to that of Sassanid times, a comparison of the Sassanid Empire with the Islamic Republic would be fruitful. While the hindrances placed before the growth of Christianity during the Sassanid, Muslim, and Safavid periods do not confirm causation (i.e. that the Iranian government’s harassment of Iranian Christians directly led to the growth, unity, or strengthening of Christianity in Iran), they do indicate a correlation; there does seem to be a connection. Demonstrating direct causation (or otherwise) would need to account for all the periods in which Christians have been present in Iran, including the Mongol era, when Christianity was largely extinguished.
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